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    // Copyright 2013-2015 The Rust Project Developers. See the COPYRIGHT
    // file at the top-level directory of this distribution and at
    // http://rust-lang.org/COPYRIGHT.
    //
    // Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 <LICENSE-APACHE or
    // http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0> or the MIT license
    // <LICENSE-MIT or http://opensource.org/licenses/MIT>, at your
    // option. This file may not be copied, modified, or distributed
    // except according to those terms.

    //! Utilities for formatting and printing `String`s.
    //!
    //! This module contains the runtime support for the [`format!`] syntax extension.
    //! This macro is implemented in the compiler to emit calls to this module in
    //! order to format arguments at runtime into strings.
    //!
    //! # Usage
    //!
    //! The [`format!`] macro is intended to be familiar to those coming from C's
    //! `printf`/`fprintf` functions or Python's `str.format` function.
    //!
    //! Some examples of the [`format!`] extension are:
    //!
    //! ```
    //! format!("Hello");                 // => "Hello"
    //! format!("Hello, {}!", "world");   // => "Hello, world!"
    //! format!("The number is {}", 1);   // => "The number is 1"
    //! format!("{:?}", (3, 4));          // => "(3, 4)"
    //! format!("{value}", value=4);      // => "4"
    //! format!("{} {}", 1, 2);           // => "1 2"
    //! format!("{:04}", 42);             // => "0042" with leading zeros
    //! ```
    //!
    //! From these, you can see that the first argument is a format string. It is
    //! required by the compiler for this to be a string literal; it cannot be a
    //! variable passed in (in order to perform validity checking). The compiler
    //! will then parse the format string and determine if the list of arguments
    //! provided is suitable to pass to this format string.
    //!
    //! ## Positional parameters
    //!
    //! Each formatting argument is allowed to specify which value argument it's
    //! referencing, and if omitted it is assumed to be "the next argument". For
    //! example, the format string `{} {} {}` would take three parameters, and they
    //! would be formatted in the same order as they're given. The format string
    //! `{2} {1} {0}`, however, would format arguments in reverse order.
    //!
    //! Things can get a little tricky once you start intermingling the two types of
    //! positional specifiers. The "next argument" specifier can be thought of as an
    //! iterator over the argument. Each time a "next argument" specifier is seen,
    //! the iterator advances. This leads to behavior like this:
    //!
    //! ```
    //! format!("{1} {} {0} {}", 1, 2); // => "2 1 1 2"
    //! ```
    //!
    //! The internal iterator over the argument has not been advanced by the time
    //! the first `{}` is seen, so it prints the first argument. Then upon reaching
    //! the second `{}`, the iterator has advanced forward to the second argument.
    //! Essentially, parameters which explicitly name their argument do not affect
    //! parameters which do not name an argument in terms of positional specifiers.
    //!
    //! A format string is required to use all of its arguments, otherwise it is a
    //! compile-time error. You may refer to the same argument more than once in the
    //! format string.
    //!
    //! ## Named parameters
    //!
    //! Rust itself does not have a Python-like equivalent of named parameters to a
    //! function, but the [`format!`] macro is a syntax extension which allows it to
    //! leverage named parameters. Named parameters are listed at the end of the
    //! argument list and have the syntax:
    //!
    //! ```text
    //! identifier '=' expression
    //! ```
    //!
    //! For example, the following [`format!`] expressions all use named argument:
    //!
    //! ```
    //! format!("{argument}", argument = "test");   // => "test"
    //! format!("{name} {}", 1, name = 2);          // => "2 1"
    //! format!("{a} {c} {b}", a="a", b='b', c=3);  // => "a 3 b"
    //! ```
    //!
    //! It is not valid to put positional parameters (those without names) after
    //! arguments which have names. Like with positional parameters, it is not
    //! valid to provide named parameters that are unused by the format string.
    //!
    //! ## Argument types
    //!
    //! Each argument's type is dictated by the format string.
    //! There are various parameters which require a particular type, however.
    //! An example is the `{:.*}` syntax, which sets the number of decimal places
    //! in floating-point types:
    //!
    //! ```
    //! let formatted_number = format!("{:.*}", 2, 1.234567);
    //!
    //! assert_eq!("1.23", formatted_number)
    //! ```
    //!
    //! If this syntax is used, then the number of characters to print precedes the
    //! actual object being formatted, and the number of characters must have the
    //! type [`usize`].
    //!
    //! ## Formatting traits
    //!
    //! When requesting that an argument be formatted with a particular type, you
    //! are actually requesting that an argument ascribes to a particular trait.
    //! This allows multiple actual types to be formatted via `{:x}` (like [`i8`] as
    //! well as [`isize`]).  The current mapping of types to traits is:
    //!
    //! * *nothing* ⇒ [`Display`]
    //! * `?` ⇒ [`Debug`]
    //! * `x?` ⇒ [`Debug`] with lower-case hexadecimal integers
    //! * `X?` ⇒ [`Debug`] with upper-case hexadecimal integers
    //! * `o` ⇒ [`Octal`](trait.Octal.html)
    //! * `x` ⇒ [`LowerHex`](trait.LowerHex.html)
    //! * `X` ⇒ [`UpperHex`](trait.UpperHex.html)
    //! * `p` ⇒ [`Pointer`](trait.Pointer.html)
    //! * `b` ⇒ [`Binary`]
    //! * `e` ⇒ [`LowerExp`](trait.LowerExp.html)
    //! * `E` ⇒ [`UpperExp`](trait.UpperExp.html)
    //!
    //! What this means is that any type of argument which implements the
    //! [`fmt::Binary`][`Binary`] trait can then be formatted with `{:b}`. Implementations
    //! are provided for these traits for a number of primitive types by the
    //! standard library as well. If no format is specified (as in `{}` or `{:6}`),
    //! then the format trait used is the [`Display`] trait.
    //!
    //! When implementing a format trait for your own type, you will have to
    //! implement a method of the signature:
    //!
    //! ```
    //! # #![allow(dead_code)]
    //! # use std::fmt;
    //! # struct Foo; // our custom type
    //! # impl fmt::Display for Foo {
    //! fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter) -> fmt::Result {
    //! # write!(f, "testing, testing")
    //! # } }
    //! ```
    //!
    //! Your type will be passed as `self` by-reference, and then the function
    //! should emit output into the `f.buf` stream. It is up to each format trait
    //! implementation to correctly adhere to the requested formatting parameters.
    //! The values of these parameters will be listed in the fields of the
    //! [`Formatter`] struct. In order to help with this, the [`Formatter`] struct also
    //! provides some helper methods.
    //!
    //! Additionally, the return value of this function is [`fmt::Result`] which is a
    //! type alias of [`Result`]`<(), `[`std::fmt::Error`]`>`. Formatting implementations
    //! should ensure that they propagate errors from the [`Formatter`][`Formatter`] (e.g., when
    //! calling [`write!`]) however, they should never return errors spuriously. That
    //! is, a formatting implementation must and may only return an error if the
    //! passed-in [`Formatter`] returns an error. This is because, contrary to what
    //! the function signature might suggest, string formatting is an infallible
    //! operation. This function only returns a result because writing to the
    //! underlying stream might fail and it must provide a way to propagate the fact
    //! that an error has occurred back up the stack.
    //!
    //! An example of implementing the formatting traits would look
    //! like:
    //!
    //! ```
    //! use std::fmt;
    //!
    //! #[derive(Debug)]
    //! struct Vector2D {
    //!     x: isize,
    //!     y: isize,
    //! }
    //!
    //! impl fmt::Display for Vector2D {
    //!     fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter) -> fmt::Result {
    //!         // The `f` value implements the `Write` trait, which is what the
    //!         // write! macro is expecting. Note that this formatting ignores the
    //!         // various flags provided to format strings.
    //!         write!(f, "({}, {})", self.x, self.y)
    //!     }
    //! }
    //!
    //! // Different traits allow different forms of output of a type. The meaning
    //! // of this format is to print the magnitude of a vector.
    //! impl fmt::Binary for Vector2D {
    //!     fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter) -> fmt::Result {
    //!         let magnitude = (self.x * self.x + self.y * self.y) as f64;
    //!         let magnitude = magnitude.sqrt();
    //!
    //!         // Respect the formatting flags by using the helper method
    //!         // `pad_integral` on the Formatter object. See the method
    //!         // documentation for details, and the function `pad` can be used
    //!         // to pad strings.
    //!         let decimals = f.precision().unwrap_or(3);
    //!         let string = format!("{:.*}", decimals, magnitude);
    //!         f.pad_integral(true, "", &string)
    //!     }
    //! }
    //!
    //! fn main() {
    //!     let myvector = Vector2D { x: 3, y: 4 };
    //!
    //!     println!("{}", myvector);       // => "(3, 4)"
    //!     println!("{:?}", myvector);     // => "Vector2D {x: 3, y:4}"
    //!     println!("{:10.3b}", myvector); // => "     5.000"
    //! }
    //! ```
    //!
    //! ### `fmt::Display` vs `fmt::Debug`
    //!
    //! These two formatting traits have distinct purposes:
    //!
    //! - [`fmt::Display`][`Display`] implementations assert that the type can be faithfully
    //!   represented as a UTF-8 string at all times. It is **not** expected that
    //!   all types implement the [`Display`] trait.
    //! - [`fmt::Debug`][`Debug`] implementations should be implemented for **all** public types.
    //!   Output will typically represent the internal state as faithfully as possible.
    //!   The purpose of the [`Debug`] trait is to facilitate debugging Rust code. In
    //!   most cases, using `#[derive(Debug)]` is sufficient and recommended.
    //!
    //! Some examples of the output from both traits:
    //!
    //! ```
    //! assert_eq!(format!("{} {:?}", 3, 4), "3 4");
    //! assert_eq!(format!("{} {:?}", 'a', 'b'), "a 'b'");
    //! assert_eq!(format!("{} {:?}", "foo\n", "bar\n"), "foo\n \"bar\\n\"");
    //! ```
    //!
    //! ## Related macros
    //!
    //! There are a number of related macros in the [`format!`] family. The ones that
    //! are currently implemented are:
    //!
    //! ```ignore (only-for-syntax-highlight)
    //! format!      // described above
    //! write!       // first argument is a &mut io::Write, the destination
    //! writeln!     // same as write but appends a newline
    //! print!       // the format string is printed to the standard output
    //! println!     // same as print but appends a newline
    //! eprint!      // the format string is printed to the standard error
    //! eprintln!    // same as eprint but appends a newline
    //! format_args! // described below.
    //! ```
    //!
    //! ### `write!`
    //!
    //! This and [`writeln!`] are two macros which are used to emit the format string
    //! to a specified stream. This is used to prevent intermediate allocations of
    //! format strings and instead directly write the output. Under the hood, this
    //! function is actually invoking the [`write_fmt`] function defined on the
    //! [`std::io::Write`] trait. Example usage is:
    //!
    //! ```
    //! # #![allow(unused_must_use)]
    //! use std::io::Write;
    //! let mut w = Vec::new();
    //! write!(&mut w, "Hello {}!", "world");
    //! ```
    //!
    //! ### `print!`
    //!
    //! This and [`println!`] emit their output to stdout. Similarly to the [`write!`]
    //! macro, the goal of these macros is to avoid intermediate allocations when
    //! printing output. Example usage is:
    //!
    //! ```
    //! print!("Hello {}!", "world");
    //! println!("I have a newline {}", "character at the end");
    //! ```
    //! ### `eprint!`
    //!
    //! The [`eprint!`] and [`eprintln!`] macros are identical to
    //! [`print!`] and [`println!`], respectively, except they emit their
    //! output to stderr.
    //!
    //! ### `format_args!`
    //!
    //! This is a curious macro which is used to safely pass around
    //! an opaque object describing the format string. This object
    //! does not require any heap allocations to create, and it only
    //! references information on the stack. Under the hood, all of
    //! the related macros are implemented in terms of this. First
    //! off, some example usage is:
    //!
    //! ```
    //! # #![allow(unused_must_use)]
    //! use std::fmt;
    //! use std::io::{self, Write};
    //!
    //! let mut some_writer = io::stdout();
    //! write!(&mut some_writer, "{}", format_args!("print with a {}", "macro"));
    //!
    //! fn my_fmt_fn(args: fmt::Arguments) {
    //!     write!(&mut io::stdout(), "{}", args);
    //! }
    //! my_fmt_fn(format_args!(", or a {} too", "function"));
    //! ```
    //!
    //! The result of the [`format_args!`] macro is a value of type [`fmt::Arguments`].
    //! This structure can then be passed to the [`write`] and [`format`] functions
    //! inside this module in order to process the format string.
    //! The goal of this macro is to even further prevent intermediate allocations
    //! when dealing formatting strings.
    //!
    //! For example, a logging library could use the standard formatting syntax, but
    //! it would internally pass around this structure until it has been determined
    //! where output should go to.
    //!
    //! # Syntax
    //!
    //! The syntax for the formatting language used is drawn from other languages,
    //! so it should not be too alien. Arguments are formatted with Python-like
    //! syntax, meaning that arguments are surrounded by `{}` instead of the C-like
    //! `%`. The actual grammar for the formatting syntax is:
    //!
    //! ```text
    //! format_string := <text> [ maybe-format <text> ] *
    //! maybe-format := '{' '{' | '}' '}' | <format>
    //! format := '{' [ argument ] [ ':' format_spec ] '}'
    //! argument := integer | identifier
    //!
    //! format_spec := [[fill]align][sign]['#']['0'][width]['.' precision][type]
    //! fill := character
    //! align := '<' | '^' | '>'
    //! sign := '+' | '-'
    //! width := count
    //! precision := count | '*'
    //! type := identifier | '?' | ''
    //! count := parameter | integer
    //! parameter := argument '$'
    //! ```
    //!
    //! # Formatting Parameters
    //!
    //! Each argument being formatted can be transformed by a number of formatting
    //! parameters (corresponding to `format_spec` in the syntax above). These
    //! parameters affect the string representation of what's being formatted. This
    //! syntax draws heavily from Python's, so it may seem a bit familiar.
    //!
    //! ## Fill/Alignment
    //!
    //! The fill character is provided normally in conjunction with the
    //! [`width`](#width)
    //! parameter. This indicates that if the value being formatted is smaller than
    //! `width` some extra characters will be printed around it. The extra
    //! characters are specified by `fill`, and the alignment can be one of the
    //! following options:
    //!
    //! * `<` - the argument is left-aligned in `width` columns
    //! * `^` - the argument is center-aligned in `width` columns
    //! * `>` - the argument is right-aligned in `width` columns
    //!
    //! Note that alignment may not be implemented by some types. A good way
    //! to ensure padding is applied is to format your input, then use this
    //! resulting string to pad your output.
    //!
    //! ## Sign/`#`/`0`
    //!
    //! These can all be interpreted as flags for a particular formatter.
    //!
    //! * `+` - This is intended for numeric types and indicates that the sign
    //!         should always be printed. Positive signs are never printed by
    //!         default, and the negative sign is only printed by default for the
    //!         `Signed` trait. This flag indicates that the correct sign (`+` or `-`)
    //!         should always be printed.
    //! * `-` - Currently not used
    //! * `#` - This flag is indicates that the "alternate" form of printing should
    //!         be used. The alternate forms are:
    //!     * `#?` - pretty-print the [`Debug`] formatting
    //!     * `#x` - precedes the argument with a `0x`
    //!     * `#X` - precedes the argument with a `0x`
    //!     * `#b` - precedes the argument with a `0b`
    //!     * `#o` - precedes the argument with a `0o`
    //! * `0` - This is used to indicate for integer formats that the padding should
    //!         both be done with a `0` character as well as be sign-aware. A format
    //!         like `{:08}` would yield `00000001` for the integer `1`, while the
    //!         same format would yield `-0000001` for the integer `-1`. Notice that
    //!         the negative version has one fewer zero than the positive version.
    //!         Note that padding zeroes are always placed after the sign (if any)
    //!         and before the digits. When used together with the `#` flag, a similar
    //!         rule applies: padding zeroes are inserted after the prefix but before
    //!         the digits.
    //!
    //! ## Width
    //!
    //! This is a parameter for the "minimum width" that the format should take up.
    //! If the value's string does not fill up this many characters, then the
    //! padding specified by fill/alignment will be used to take up the required
    //! space.
    //!
    //! The default [fill/alignment](#fillalignment) for non-numerics is a space and
    //! left-aligned. The
    //! defaults for numeric formatters is also a space but with right-alignment. If
    //! the `0` flag is specified for numerics, then the implicit fill character is
    //! `0`.
    //!
    //! The value for the width can also be provided as a [`usize`] in the list of
    //! parameters by using the dollar syntax indicating that the second argument is
    //! a [`usize`] specifying the width, for example:
    //!
    //! ```
    //! // All of these print "Hello x    !"
    //! println!("Hello {:5}!", "x");
    //! println!("Hello {:1$}!", "x", 5);
    //! println!("Hello {1:0$}!", 5, "x");
    //! println!("Hello {:width$}!", "x", width = 5);
    //! ```
    //!
    //! Referring to an argument with the dollar syntax does not affect the "next
    //! argument" counter, so it's usually a good idea to refer to arguments by
    //! position, or use named arguments.
    //!
    //! ## Precision
    //!
    //! For non-numeric types, this can be considered a "maximum width". If the resulting string is
    //! longer than this width, then it is truncated down to this many characters and that truncated
    //! value is emitted with proper `fill`, `alignment` and `width` if those parameters are set.
    //!
    //! For integral types, this is ignored.
    //!
    //! For floating-point types, this indicates how many digits after the decimal point should be
    //! printed.
    //!
    //! There are three possible ways to specify the desired `precision`:
    //!
    //! 1. An integer `.N`:
    //!
    //!    the integer `N` itself is the precision.
    //!
    //! 2. An integer or name followed by dollar sign `.N$`:
    //!
    //!    use format *argument* `N` (which must be a `usize`) as the precision.
    //!
    //! 3. An asterisk `.*`:
    //!
    //!    `.*` means that this `{...}` is associated with *two* format inputs rather than one: the
    //!    first input holds the `usize` precision, and the second holds the value to print.  Note that
    //!    in this case, if one uses the format string `{<arg>:<spec>.*}`, then the `<arg>` part refers
    //!    to the *value* to print, and the `precision` must come in the input preceding `<arg>`.
    //!
    //! For example, the following calls all print the same thing `Hello x is 0.01000`:
    //!
    //! ```
    //! // Hello {arg 0 ("x")} is {arg 1 (0.01) with precision specified inline (5)}
    //! println!("Hello {0} is {1:.5}", "x", 0.01);
    //!
    //! // Hello {arg 1 ("x")} is {arg 2 (0.01) with precision specified in arg 0 (5)}
    //! println!("Hello {1} is {2:.0$}", 5, "x", 0.01);
    //!
    //! // Hello {arg 0 ("x")} is {arg 2 (0.01) with precision specified in arg 1 (5)}
    //! println!("Hello {0} is {2:.1$}", "x", 5, 0.01);
    //!
    //! // Hello {next arg ("x")} is {second of next two args (0.01) with precision
    //! //                          specified in first of next two args (5)}
    //! println!("Hello {} is {:.*}",    "x", 5, 0.01);
    //!
    //! // Hello {next arg ("x")} is {arg 2 (0.01) with precision
    //! //                          specified in its predecessor (5)}
    //! println!("Hello {} is {2:.*}",   "x", 5, 0.01);
    //!
    //! // Hello {next arg ("x")} is {arg "number" (0.01) with precision specified
    //! //                          in arg "prec" (5)}
    //! println!("Hello {} is {number:.prec$}", "x", prec = 5, number = 0.01);
    //! ```
    //!
    //! While these:
    //!
    //! ```
    //! println!("{}, `{name:.*}` has 3 fractional digits", "Hello", 3, name=1234.56);
    //! println!("{}, `{name:.*}` has 3 characters", "Hello", 3, name="1234.56");
    //! println!("{}, `{name:>8.*}` has 3 right-aligned characters", "Hello", 3, name="1234.56");
    //! ```
    //!
    //! print two significantly different things:
    //!
    //! ```text
    //! Hello, `1234.560` has 3 fractional digits
    //! Hello, `123` has 3 characters
    //! Hello, `     123` has 3 right-aligned characters
    //! ```
    //!
    //! # Escaping
    //!
    //! The literal characters `{` and `}` may be included in a string by preceding
    //! them with the same character. For example, the `{` character is escaped with
    //! `{{` and the `}` character is escaped with `}}`.
    //!
    //! [`usize`]: ../../std/primitive.usize.html
    //! [`isize`]: ../../std/primitive.isize.html
    //! [`i8`]: ../../std/primitive.i8.html
    //! [`Display`]: trait.Display.html
    //! [`Binary`]: trait.Binary.html
    //! [`fmt::Result`]: type.Result.html
    //! [`Result`]: ../../std/result/enum.Result.html
    //! [`std::fmt::Error`]: struct.Error.html
    //! [`Formatter`]: struct.Formatter.html
    //! [`write!`]: ../../std/macro.write.html
    //! [`Debug`]: trait.Debug.html
    //! [`format!`]: ../../std/macro.format.html
    //! [`writeln!`]: ../../std/macro.writeln.html
    //! [`write_fmt`]: ../../std/io/trait.Write.html#method.write_fmt
    //! [`std::io::Write`]: ../../std/io/trait.Write.html
    //! [`print!`]: ../../std/macro.print.html
    //! [`println!`]: ../../std/macro.println.html
    //! [`eprint!`]: ../../std/macro.eprint.html
    //! [`eprintln!`]: ../../std/macro.eprintln.html
    //! [`write!`]: ../../std/macro.write.html
    //! [`format_args!`]: ../../std/macro.format_args.html
    //! [`fmt::Arguments`]: struct.Arguments.html
    //! [`write`]: fn.write.html
    //! [`format`]: fn.format.html

    #![stable(feature = "rust1", since = "1.0.0")]

    #[unstable(feature = "fmt_internals", issue = "0")]
    pub use core::fmt::rt;
    #[stable(feature = "rust1", since = "1.0.0")]
    pub use core::fmt::{Formatter, Result, Write};
    #[stable(feature = "rust1", since = "1.0.0")]
    pub use core::fmt::{Binary, Octal};
    #[stable(feature = "rust1", since = "1.0.0")]
    pub use core::fmt::{Debug, Display};
    #[stable(feature = "rust1", since = "1.0.0")]
    pub use core::fmt::{LowerHex, Pointer, UpperHex};
    #[stable(feature = "rust1", since = "1.0.0")]
    pub use core::fmt::{LowerExp, UpperExp};
    #[stable(feature = "rust1", since = "1.0.0")]
    pub use core::fmt::Error;
    #[stable(feature = "rust1", since = "1.0.0")]
    pub use core::fmt::{write, ArgumentV1, Arguments};
    #[stable(feature = "rust1", since = "1.0.0")]
    pub use core::fmt::{DebugList, DebugMap, DebugSet, DebugStruct, DebugTuple};
    #[stable(feature = "fmt_flags_align", since = "1.28.0")]
    pub use core::fmt::{Alignment};

    use string;

    /// The `format` function takes an [`Arguments`] struct and returns the resulting
    /// formatted string.
    ///
    /// The [`Arguments`] instance can be created with the [`format_args!`] macro.
    ///
    /// # Examples
    ///
    /// Basic usage:
    ///
    /// ```
    /// use std::fmt;
    ///
    /// let s = fmt::format(format_args!("Hello, {}!", "world"));
    /// assert_eq!(s, "Hello, world!");
    /// ```
    ///
    /// Please note that using [`format!`] might be preferable.
    /// Example:
    ///
    /// ```
    /// let s = format!("Hello, {}!", "world");
    /// assert_eq!(s, "Hello, world!");
    /// ```
    ///
    /// [`Arguments`]: struct.Arguments.html
    /// [`format_args!`]: ../../std/macro.format_args.html
    /// [`format!`]: ../../std/macro.format.html
    #[stable(feature = "rust1", since = "1.0.0")]
    pub fn format(args: Arguments) -> string::String {
        let capacity = args.estimated_capacity();
        let mut output = string::String::with_capacity(capacity);
        output
            .write_fmt(args)
            .expect("a formatting trait implementation returned an error");
        output
    }

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